A parent's guide to plastic, from pregnancy to primary school

If you’re pregnant or raising small children, you’ve probably read something about plastic that made your stomach drop. Microplastics in placentas. Hormone disruptors in teethers. Bottles shedding millions of particles. Then you looked at your kitchen, which is full of plastic, like everyone’s.

This guide is the opposite of that feeling. It goes stage by stage and picks the two to four changes with the best evidence at each one. It says plainly which steps are proven to cut exposure and which are precautions. It also says where the evidence for harm stops, which is earlier than the headlines suggest.

Three ground rules first.

Nothing here is proven to make a child healthier. Several steps are proven to lower the amount of a chemical in people’s urine. That’s real, but it isn’t the same as preventing disease, and nobody has run that study.

Safety rules beat plastic rules, every time. Water for formula must be at least 70°C. Babies sleep on a firm, flat mattress. Breastfeeding, if you can, is still recommended. Nothing below asks you to bend any of those.

You don’t have to do everything, or anything at once. Use up what you have. Swap things as they wear out. The biggest sources are decided by food manufacturers and regulators, not by you.

Pregnancy

What the evidence says

Phthalates (plastic softeners and fragrance fixers) and bisphenols (BPA and its cousins) are the best-studied plastic chemicals in pregnancy. In a pooled study of 16 US pregnancy cohorts, most phthalate metabolites turned up in more than 96% of participants. Higher levels were linked to 12% to 16% higher odds of preterm birth. Several of those results only just reached statistical significance, and this is association, not proof. Earlier work linked higher phthalate levels in pregnancy to a shorter anogenital distance in baby boys, a marker of reduced male hormone action, in a small study. A US expert panel estimated that roughly 10% of pregnant women had combined phthalate exposures above acceptable levels. For BPA, one cohort of 244 mothers linked higher levels in pregnancy to more anxious behaviour at age three, mainly in girls. We cover the detail in our phthalates and BPA explainers.

Microplastics are newer and shakier. They’ve been found in placentas, first in 4 of 6 placentas in a tiny 2021 study, later in all 62 in a US study whose measuring method is now disputed (see our research notes). In 2026, a Chinese study of 1,750 mother-baby pairs linked higher placental microplastic levels to lower birth weight: about 108 g lower in the main model (the abstract doesn’t say per how much microplastic). It’s one cross-sectional study with low particle counts, and it hasn’t been replicated. A 2026 systematic review of the field concluded that the findings do not allow causal inference.

The US obstetricians’ body, ACOG, calls the evidence linking environmental chemicals to reproductive harm “emerging” and says antenatal appointments are a chance to talk about reducing exposure. Fair summary: worth reducing where it’s easy, not worth panic.

What to change

1. Eat less from cans (good evidence for exposure). In a crossover trial, one serving of canned soup a day raised urinary BPA by 1,221% compared with fresh soup. Fresh, frozen, dried or jarred food sidesteps can linings.
2. Go fragrance-free on toiletries (good evidence, for the lighter phthalates). When 100 teenage girls switched to products labelled free of phthalates and parabens for three days, a marker of the phthalate DEP fell 27.4%. It wasn’t a pregnancy study, and heavier phthalates didn’t budge. “Fragrance-free” is the easier label to check.
3. Cook from fresh where you can (moderate evidence, with a catch). Three days of fresh food stored in glass cut BPA by 66% and DEHP markers by 53–56% in 20 people. But a later trial of catered “clean” meals raised DEHP about 25-fold because ground coriander and milk in the meals were contaminated. Food matters, and you can’t fully control it alone.
4. Skip till receipts (good evidence for exposure, small studies). Handling receipts for two hours raised urinary BPA from 1.8 to 5.8 µg/L. The EU banned BPA in thermal paper partly to protect the unborn children of pregnant cashiers and shoppers, though replacements such as BPS aren’t clearly better. If you handle receipts at work, that’s the one to take most seriously.

Newborn feeding

Breast milk

A pilot study found microplastics in 26 of 34 breast milk samples. That doesn’t change the advice. The NHS says to breastfeed if you can, and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends human milk feeding as part of reducing sleep-related infant deaths. No study shows formula is lower in plastic. If you formula-feed, for any reason, the steps below make it lower-plastic without making it less safe.

Formula and bottles

1. Keep the 70°C rule (non-negotiable). Powdered formula isn’t sterile, and the WHO says to make it up with water no less than 70°C and never to use a microwave. That’s about bacteria that can kill babies. Don’t cool the water to protect a plastic bottle.
2. Boil water in glass or steel (precaution, easy). In the 2020 Dublin study, plastic kettles released about 11 million particles per litre in a single boil. Plastic bottles shed up to 16.2 million per litre at formula-making temperatures, though another lab using the same method found almost nothing and suspects the particles were additives. Hotter water meaning more shedding is the consistent bit.
3. Consider glass or steel bottles (precaution). They let you follow standard guidance with no extra steps. The teat is usually silicone, which also sheds a little: steam-disinfected teats were estimated to give a baby more than 0.66 million particles by age one, with unknown effects. The baby bottles explainer covers the researchers’ glass-jug mixing method if you’d rather keep plastic bottles.
4. Retire old hard, clear bottles (good evidence for release). Polycarbonate bottles, from before BPA was dropped, released 8.4 µg/L of BPA after 51 dishwasher cycles, against 0.23 µg/L new. If a hand-me-down bottle is rigid, glassy and old, don’t use it.

Weaning and tableware

1. Don’t microwave baby food in plastic (good evidence for release; harm unproven). In a lab study, plastic baby-food containers released up to 4.22 million microplastics and 2.11 billion nanoplastics per square centimetre in three minutes of microwaving. Warm food in a glass or ceramic bowl instead. The microwaving explainer explains why “microwave-safe” doesn’t mean “sheds nothing”.
2. Keep melamine and “bamboo” plates for cold food (good evidence). Most “bamboo” kids’ tableware is melamine-formaldehyde plastic with plant filler. Germany’s risk agency says it shouldn’t be used for hot food, infant formula or the microwave, though cold and lukewarm food are fine. Dutch researchers argued the legal formaldehyde limit doesn’t adequately protect babies and young children. Stainless steel is the simplest unbreakable swap; see our melamine guide.
3. Store purées in glass, and keep cling film off fatty food (moderate evidence). In a UK survey, cheese wrapped in PVC film held 27.8 to 135 mg/kg of the plasticiser DEHA, against under 2 mg/kg in wrapped fruit and veg. Fat pulls plasticiser out. Ice-cube trays and small jars work for freezing; the food storage guide covers freezing glass without cracking it.

Toys and teething

Toys get the most parental worry, and they’re not the biggest source. The US expert panel concluded that most phthalate exposure comes from diet and personal care products, with toys a relatively small addition. But babies mouth everything, and toys are the source the law already says shouldn’t contain these chemicals.

1. Skip soft vinyl for babies and toddlers (strongest). Squeezy PVC bath toys, dolls and inflatables are where phthalates turn up. Both the US and the EU cap restricted phthalates at 0.1% in toys, yet by our count of a public copy of EU data there were more than 300 phthalate toy alerts from 2023 to 2025. Cheap online marketplace sellers are the usual weak spot.
2. Don’t read “BPA-free” as “hormone-free” (moderate evidence). Of 59 teethers tested in the US, most labelled BPA-free, nine other bisphenols leached out at 1.93 to 213 nanograms per teether. Plain wood, natural rubber (watch for latex allergy) or silicone are reasonable alternatives.
3. Be picky about old soft or painted plastic (moderate evidence). Hand-me-downs are great, but they predate the bans. When 26 second-hand toys were tested for migration, 8 released cadmium or lead above EU limits. Old hard plastic for older kids is a lower concern than old vinyl for a chewing baby.

The toys and teethers guide has the full rules and the materials list.

Sleep, nursery and home

Crib mattresses: a newer question

Babies spend more time asleep than anywhere else, with their face on a mattress. That makes mattress chemistry worth a look, and our other articles don’t yet cover it.

• A 2014 study tested 20 new and used crib mattresses. All of them gave off volatile organic compounds, emissions more than doubled at body temperature (139 versus 56 µg per square metre per hour), and new mattresses emitted more than used ones. With a heated infant-sized dummy in the crib, levels in the breathing zone were 1.8 to 2.4 times those in the room.
• In 2025, a Toronto team bought 16 new, low- to mid-priced children’s foam mattresses and found 21 plasticisers, flame retardants and UV filters. One mattress exceeded Canada’s limit for the phthalate DBP. Five held more than 0.1% of phthalates that Canada restricts in toys but not in mattresses. One had a flame retardant, TCEP, at 9,000 mg/kg in its foam despite a Canadian ban in children’s foam products. In emission tests on eight of them, 12 chemicals were released at room temperature, 20 at body temperature and 21 with weight pressing down as well.

Neither study measured anything in children’s bodies or any health outcome. The authors’ argument is for tighter rules on what goes into children’s mattresses, not for parents to panic. They also note that Canada’s small-flame test for cribs can be met without adding flame retardants. California has banned new juvenile products and mattresses containing listed flame retardant chemicals above 1,000 parts per million since January 2020. In the US, crib mattresses still have to meet federal fire standards, so fire safety stays in the picture.

Safe sleep comes first. The NHS says to use a firm, flat mattress and to keep pillows, bumpers, soft toys, pods and nests out of the cot. The AAP says the same about a firm, noninclined surface and no soft bedding. So don’t add a soft “natural” topper over a foam mattress, and don’t swap a proper crib mattress for something squashier because it sounds less chemical.

What you can reasonably do, as precautions nobody has tested:

1. When buying, ask whether there are added flame retardants. A mattress sold as compliant with California’s law is one way to check. Firm, flat and fitting the cot snugly still matter most.
2. Unwrap a new mattress and let it air in a ventilated room before use. New mattresses emitted more than used ones in the 2014 study. This is our inference, not a tested method.

Dust and the floor

Small children live on the floor and put their hands in their mouths. Modelled microplastic ingestion from dust in a Sydney study was 6.1 mg per kilogram of body weight a year for ages 1 to 6, against 0.5 for adults, and phthalates were the most concentrated of 45 consumer-product chemicals in US house dust. Damp-dusting, a HEPA vacuum and washing hands before meals make sense. None has been shown to lower levels in children, so treat them as cheap precautions. The dust explainer has more, including why you shouldn’t bin a perfectly good sofa.

School lunches

1. A plain stainless steel bottle (good choice, with one check). “BPA-free” plastic isn’t hormone-free: lab tests found oestrogen-like activity leaching from almost all plastic products tested, including BPA-free ones. Steel is simpler, but check insulated bottles’ bases. About 10,500 toddler bottles and cups were recalled because the base could break off and expose a lead solder dot. If the cap comes off, stop using it. Our water bottles guide covers lids and linings.
2. Send hot food in an insulated steel jar rather than a plastic box for the microwave (precaution). The same heat-and-plastic evidence applies at school as at home. If the school reheats lunches, a glass or ceramic dish is the low-plastic option.
3. Keep cling film off sandwiches with cheese or mayonnaise (moderate evidence). In the same UK survey, baked goods and sandwiches wrapped in PVC film held 11 to 212 mg/kg of DEHA, and fat drives it. A lunchbox you already own is fine; there’s no benefit to binning working containers.
4. Fewer canned and processed snacks (good evidence for exposure). The canned-food and fresh-food results from pregnancy apply to children too. In US national survey data from 2003–04, children had higher urinary BPA than adolescents, and adolescents higher than adults.

If you only do five things

Ranked by strength of evidence that they cut exposure:

1. Eat less from cans and less highly processed food, at every stage.
2. Don’t heat food, milk or formula in plastic. Use glass, steel or ceramic.
3. Go fragrance-free on toiletries for you and the baby.
4. Skip soft vinyl toys and anything old, soft and chewable.
5. Choose plain stainless steel for cups and bottles, and keep melamine for cold food.

Then stop. You’ve dealt with the biggest sources you can personally reach.

What isn’t on you

Most plastic chemicals reach children through food production, packaging and products their parents can’t inspect. The trial where “clean” catered meals pushed DEHP up 25-fold showed that even careful families can’t shop their way out. Children’s mattresses with banned flame retardants, and toys with phthalates hundreds of times over the limit, are enforcement failures, not parenting failures.

So do the cheap things, keep the safety rules, and spend any leftover worry on the people who can fix it: regulators who set limits for mattresses and food-contact plastics, and manufacturers who choose what goes in. For how we judge evidence, see our standards. More for parents is in the baby and kids section.